By Penrose R.
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Extra resources for Road to reality: Hyperfunctions
Sample text
However, in this book we are concerned with major meteoritic impacts and the mildly sceptical reader will care little for the ‘dust and small pebbles’ that arrive from space, so we shall not deal further with such micro- or small-scale meteorites. The obvious starting point in estimating the flux of moderate, to large-scale, meteorites and comets that make contact with the Earth is the cratering evidence which has come to light in the 20th century. At the time of writing, there are only 150 craters and impact features that are accredited with the rating certain.
Chyba (1993) argues that recent observations show that Earth-approachers which have a diameter of less than 40 m are 10–100 times more likely than was originally inferred from earlier data. The explosions attendant upon these objects entering the atmosphere occur at 10–45 km above the Earth’s surface. Only objects with an explosive energy in excess of 30 megatons are likely to break through to the Earth’s surface. 10 Asteroids Ida and Gaspra as photographed by the spacecraft Galileo. He demonstrates that ‘spacewatch’ objects with diameters of up to 50 m have kinetic energies of less than about 10 megatons high-explosive equivalent.
Fluid pressure is generated between the packers until the borehole fails. Near the surface, the rock tends to develop a horizontal hydraulic fracture (HHF)—A. At depth, where the vertical stress is higher than the lateral rock pressure, a vertical hydraulic pressure fracture (VHF) usually forms—B. deviation between the borehole fracture and the true orientation of the hydraulic fracture away from the borehole will not usually be known. 3 Break-out A further source of information regarding the direction of action of the greatest horizontal principal stress is obtained from the shape, in cross-section, of deep, unlined bore-holes.